TEACHING CONNECTIVES THROUGH TEXTS
Weningtyas Parama Iswari
Universitas Mulawarman
Abstract: One of the grammatical topics that seem to be problematic for learners of English as a foreign language is connectives. Therefore, there should be a way on how to teach it effectively. For this purpose, text based approach to grammar teaching has the potential to motivate learners to learn connectives better, because learners are engaged in the process of discovering meaning, as well as how the language is used and formed. This paper aims to provide a practical way on how we can teach grammar meaningfully through texts. First, it highlights some relevant theories and then proposes some ideas on using texts to teach grammar in general and connectives in particular.
Keywords: English as a foreign language, connectives, texts, texts based approach
Abstrak: Salah satu topik tata bahasa yang tampaknya menjadi masalah bagi pelajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing adalah konektif. Oleh karena itu, harus ada cara bagaimana mengajarkannya secara efektif. Untuk tujuan ini, pendekatan berbasis teks untuk mengajar tata bahasa memiliki potensi untuk memotivasi peserta didik untuk belajar konektif lebih baik, karena peserta didik terlibat dalam proses menemukan makna, serta bagaimana bahasa yang digunakan dan dibentuk. Makalah ini bertujuan untuk menyediakan cara praktis tentang bagaimana kita bisa mengajarkan tata bahasa bermakna melalui teks. Pertama, menyoroti beberapa teori yang relevan dan kemudian mengusulkan beberapa ide tentang menggunakan teks untuk mengajar tata bahasa pada umumnya dan penghubung pada khususnya.
Kata kunci: Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing, konektif, teks,
pendekatan berbasis teks
INTRODUCTION
There has been always a debate whether to teach or not to teach grammar. According to Thornbury (2004), the history of language teaching has witnessed the grammar debate that occupied many theorists and practitioners, claiming for and against the teaching of grammar. Some teachers remain indifferent to grammar, but some others dedicate most of class hours for grammar teaching. Those who see teaching grammar as not important may say that learners will be able to pick up grammar through using the language, or if they want grammar, teachers can give them exercise to do outside class. On the contrary, those who are in favor of teaching Grammar may argue teaching grammar to students help them progress faster and avoid fossilization. Penny Ur in Thornbury (1999; p.14) contains that “There is no doubt that a knowledge – implicit or explicit – of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language”. In the context of English as a foreign language, the need of grammar teaching seems quite obvious. Sia-Fong Chung argues that for learners whose first (and second) language is not English, structural practices are still needed in order to build the foundation of linguistic knowledge before further communicative tasks are given.
One of the grammatical topics that seem to be problematic for learners is connectives. Based on my personal experience in editing students’ writing, many of them used connectives inappropriately to combine two or more ideas. For example, some learners chose ‘therefore’, instead of ‘however’, when they intend to contrast two ideas. In some cases, they avoid using them, but in other cases they overuse them. Having given the explanation on connectives, I asked them if they had understood, and they said they did. However, when they had to do a practice activity, only few of them could use connectives.
From that situation, it seems that long explanation was ineffective, as teachers talked much while students listened without really understanding it. Text based approach to grammar teaching has the potential to motivate learners to learn connectives better, because learners are engaged in the process of discovering meaning, as well as how the language is used and formed.
This paper aims to provide a practical way on how we can teach grammar meaningfully through texts. First, it highlights some relevant theories and then proposes some ideas on using text to teach grammar in general and connectives in particular.
CONCEPTS OF GRAMMAR
Grammar has been extensively defined in different ways, from traditional to more communicative modes. Traditionally, grammar is analyzed only at sentence level. It has been defined as “a description of the rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed” (Thornbury, 1999; p.13). Recently, grammar has been seen to have a function of communicating meaning, as reflected in the following definitions:
Grammar may be roughly defined as the way a language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning (Penny Ur, 1988)
Grammar is a system for expressing certain types of meaning (McGrath, 2002,p.97).
Swan defines grammar as “Set of devices (word order, inflection, use of function words, intonation contours) needed especially to express certain kinds of necessary meaning that cannot be conveyed by referential vocabulary alone: in particular, relationships between concepts, participant role, and mood.” (2009, p.120)
Thornbury (1999) states that there are two kinds of meaning, namely: representational meaning (to describe how, when and where things happen) and interpersonal meaning (to facilitate interaction e.g. to get things done). In relation to the role of meaning in grammar, Hamond, et.al (1992; p.13) highlight the theory of language in context:
…the teaching of grammar becomes something that is functionally motivated; students learn features of sentence construction as they develop control of different genres. They learn how features of grammar contribute to the overall meaning of the texts that they are constructing.
The last definition shows how grammar as an important element in a text affects the way teachers should teach grammar, that is, to place it within the context of meaning in a text.
CONNECTIVES
Connectives are words which indicate logical relations between two clauses or sentences. The term ‘connectives’ itself is used in many ways. Richards, et.al (1992) mentions the term having the same meaning as conjunction, that is, a word which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
With regards to communicative functions of a language, Parrott (2010) use the term discourse markers to cover a broad spectrum of kinds of words and expression that show how two or points relate to each other. He further suggests taking into account some points when teaching discourse markers: how frequently they are used, how they are used according to particular kinds of text (context), whether they can introduce or separate substantial parts of text, whether they generally precede clauses, occur within clauses or come at the end of clauses.
The following table presents some of the main connectives that have been roughly classified according to their meaning and grammar.
A List of Connectives
Broad meaning | Adverb Clause words | Transitions | Conjunctions | Prepositions |
Cause and Effect | because so (that) since now that | therefore consequently | so for | because due to |
Contrast | even though whereas although while though | however nevertheless nonetheless on the other hand | but (…anyway) yet (…still) | despite in spite of |
Condition | if in case only if unless whether or not | otherwise | or (else) |
(source: Azar, 1992)
We use a connective to show logical connection of ideas. In many cases, these logical relations are obvious, so that connectives are not needed, leaving these relations implicit. For example:
The narrator uses words that give no personality to the Martian. He uses words like “it”, he describes “something” emerging from the craft, he describes grey glistening inhuman flesh. (Online source: Anonymous)
Sometimes, however, it is necessary to make the relations explicit. For example, in the following excerpt, the connective ‘even’ plays a significant role to signal explicitly an unexpected example:
The writer suggests that Lewis and Benjamin have lived the same way all their lives. They have never tried anything different. Even in the house they have kept things the same for over sixty years, like the photographs of the uncles and cousins. (Online source: Anonymous).
In choosing an appropriate connective, one should consider meaning – what logical relations need to be made explicit (e.g. expressing contrast or addition), and syntax – what grammatical relation between ideas have this logical relation (Anonymous, online source). For instance, but and however express the same logic, but they are different grammatically:
It was cold but I went swimming anyway. But is conjunction introducing the subordinate clause
It was cold. However, I still went swimming. However is a transition which refers back to an idea previously mentioned.
We can flexibly place connectives in a variety of positions as shown in Parrott (2010):
Moreover, I wanted to speak to him before he left.
I wanted moreover to speak to him before he left.
I wanted to speak to him moreover before he left.
I wanted to speak to him before he left moreover.
I moreover wanted to speak to him before he left.
Surprisingly, the car started.
The car surprisingly started.
The car started surprisingly.
Some connectives cannot be used in such flexible positions. The safest rule to give learners is to put connectives before the point they introduce (e.g. Moreover, I wanted to speak to him before he left). It is also necessary to point out some exceptions (e.g. anyway, instead, though, too) that usually come after the information they refer to. (Parrott, 2010)
Special attention to punctuation also needs to be given when writing a connective in relation to its position in a sentence. The following table is copied from Azar (1992).
Tag text based approach, second language acquisition, english as a foreign language, connectives
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